kopia lustrzana https://github.com/thinkst/zippy
280 wiersze
18 KiB
Plaintext
280 wiersze
18 KiB
Plaintext
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a brief History
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Prehistoric man in Asia Minor (now modern Turkey) or Greece
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could look out across the Aegean toward the horizon and see the faint
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silhouette of land. Their curiosity pushed them to build vessels that
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were strong enough to ford the open seas and reach these islands,
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marking the start of the long legacy of Mediterranean seafaring.
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Around 7000 b.c. , the Phoenicians set out from what is now
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Iran to explore their surroundings. They eventually reached the
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islands, and founded colonies on the islands in the northernmost part
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of the Aegean Sea. An important early material, obsidian, was
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discovered on the island of Milos. Obsidian is a hard, vitreous
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volcanic rock, which could be fashioned into tools for cutting and
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stabbing. The high quality of the seam on Milos ensured that the area
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remained popular with early travelers.
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The basic elements of life in the Aegean began to come
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together as early as 5000 b.c. , and were already in place by the late
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Bronze Age (c. 2700 b.c. ). The major changes were not to daily tasks
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and routines, but to the political power base, which changed regularly
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and not necessarily peacefully throughout the ages.
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Cycladic Culture
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At around 3500 b.c. , a sophisticated culture evolved in the
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Cyclades islands. The distinctive, sculpted marble figures of the era
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are now being reproduced in vast quantities as souvenirs. You will find
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original examples in the archaeological museums throughout the
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Cyclades, although one of the earliest examples is in the museum on
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Paros. The people farmed and fished; on the dawning of the Bronze Age
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in 2700 b.c. , they began to work with metals. The Cycladic culture was
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influenced by societies in the east, importing the pottery wheel from
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Mesopotamia. They also continued to trade in obsidian and the local
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marble.
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The Minoans and the Myceneans
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Farther south in Crete, the Minoan culture developed after
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2000 b.c. into the most significant of its age, spreading its influence
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throughout the region by trade and diplomacy. Santorini (Thira), the
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next major island north, was heavily influenced by Crete, and the
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settlements of Thira and Akrotiri thrived at this time. The magnificent
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frescoes and mosaics found at Akrotiri are in Athens at present, but
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the remains of the buildings at the site provide ample evidence of the
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sophistication of the culture here.
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Around 1500 b.c. , a massive volcanic eruption at Santorini
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destroyed not only Akrotiri — under feet of ash and pumice — but the
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whole Minoan civilization. Massive tidal waves swept over Crete, and
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other parts of the Mediterranean, smashing buildings and drowning many
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thousands of people.
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In the wake of this tremendous natural upheaval, the Aegean
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Islands next came under the influence of the Mycenaeans (at around 1300
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b.c. ), who had a base in the Peloponnese region of the Greek mainland.
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The Mycenaeans were an acquisitive race who came to conquer, not to
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trade. Their extensive military campaigns were later chronicled by
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Homer in his epic poems The Odyssey and The Iliad.
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The Rise of Athens
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The Dorians, who came overland from northern Europe,
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conquered the Mycenaeans. They were a barbaric race, and their custody
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of the area brought about a dark period during which the written word
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was forgotten and art disappeared. They held sway over islands off the
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northern Greek coast, but the Phoenicians kept control of the main sea
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routes; south of the area, trade continued as usual. At the same time,
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city-states began to grow in influence on the southern Greek mainland.
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Athens became the most powerful, heralding the start of the classical
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Greek period. However, Greece was not yet a country; each city-state
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was self-governing and autonomous.
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The new culture spread throughout the Mediterranean, helped
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by a huge increase in migration from the mainland to new settlements
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such as Carthage, a Greek city on the African coast of the
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Mediterranean. Culture and the arts flourished once again. Athletic
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prowess was admired and the Olympic games were constituted in 776 b.c.
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, to promote friendly competition. Homer wrote his epic works on Chios;
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and lyrical poetry was much admired, particularly the work of the poets
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Archilochos on Paros and Sappho on Lesvos.
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The preeminent islands of this era were Delos, a sacred
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island and center of religion ruled by Athens; Samos, ruled by the
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tyrant Polycrates; and Naxos, whose ruler Lygdamis undertook some major
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building projects. Archaeology shows that, during this time, societies
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lived mainly in coastal trading towns with little settlement
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inland.
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The Persian Wars
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As Athens rose in influence and power in the West, it was
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matched in the East by the rise of the Persian Empire. From a power
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base in Anatolia, the Persians overran the eastern Aegean Islands and
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set their sights on the Cyclades. In 490 b.c. , they captured sacred
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Delos and razed the settlements on Naxos. The island communities were
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undecided about which side to back for a time. Paros and Andros
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contributed to the Persian armory, while others supported Athens. The
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two superpowers finally clashed at the epic battles of Marathon and
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Salamis in 480 b.c. The Persians were defeated, and Athens duly
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punished the islands that had turned against it.
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Following its victory, Athens introduced the concept of a
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mutual protection alliance (a kind of NATO of the ancient world).
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Several islands and Greek city-states agreed to work together, and
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created a treasury to fund their plans, which was held on the island of
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Delos. The alliance became known as the Delian League. Although there
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were minor internal wrangles, the league controlled the Aegean and the
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greater Athenian Empire for most of the fifth century b.c. Later, in
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454 b.c. , the treasury was transferred to Athens and its deposits were
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used to finance the construction of many of the major buildings and
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temples of the Classical Age.
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In 431 b.c. , Athens began a war with its neighbor and
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league member Sparta. Although the islands saw little action, as the
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war went on they could see that Athens was slowly losing its power.
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Before the end of the war in 401 b.c. , many islands had already
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transferred their allegiance to the victors, who were led by Philip II
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of Macedon. He was followed in 336 b.c. by his son Alexander the Great,
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one of the most remarkable leaders in history. His rise to power
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ushered in the Hellenistic period.
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Hellenistic and Roman Periods
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When Alexander went on to conquer lands as far to the east
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as India, the Aegean became a crossroads for the long trading routes.
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Delos became one of the largest marketplaces in the empire. Following
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Alexander’s death, his lands were divided among his generals. Much of
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the Aegean came under the rule of the Ptolemies, along with Egypt.
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Cleopatra was a member of this famous ruling clan.
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Although in 88 b.c. , Mithradates made a swift and
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successful raid from the East across Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands,
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the next major power change brought influence from the West. The Greek
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Hellenistic Empire was gradually, and peacefully, absorbed into the
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Roman Empire.
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The Byzantine Empire and the Coming of Christianity
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The Romans ruled a pagan empire, but the Aegean had an
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important influence on the early development of Christianity. In a.d.
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95, St. John arrived on Patmos, a small rocky island in the Dodecanese,
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as a political prisoner. It was here that he wrote what was to become
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the final book of the New Testament, the Book of Revelation. It wasn’t
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until a.d. 330, however, when the newly converted Emperor Constantine
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made Byzantium, renamed Constantinople, capital of his Eastern Empire
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that Christianity was assured of its dominant role in future Greek
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life.
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The Byzantine Empire had powerful and well-fortified
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cities, but the countryside and the outlying islands were ravaged by
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waves of invaders. In an attempt to counter a threat from the Saracen
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Muslims, a new potent religious force from the East, the Byzantine army
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forcefully enlisted the men of the islands. Disease took a further
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toll. By the time of the Crusades, many of the Aegean islands had been
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practically depopulated.
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As the Byzantine Empire weakened at the end of the first
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millennium, Crusader forces were sent from Western Europe to counter
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the Muslim forces and retake Jerusalem for the Christian faith.
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Unfortunately, their zeal was not matched by their discrimination. The
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crusaders swept through the l;and of Byzantium slaughtering Christians
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as well as Muslims, civilians as well as soldiers. Constantinople was
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taken by Crusader forces in 1204, and they stripped the city of manyof
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its finest treasures — which now grace the public buildings of
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Venice — although a large consignment of books and manuscripts was
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transferred to the monastery at Patmos before the city fell.
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While Byzantine land was being divided, there was no one in
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control of the seas, so pirates raided towns on many of the islands. To
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counter this, the populations moved from their homes on the coast and
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built settlements inland, out of sight of the raiding parties. This
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created a pattern seen today throughout the Aegean of a small port
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(skala) which serves an inland settlement or chora, making it easier to
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protect the island from attack.
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The minor Aegean Islands were taken by various powerful
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European noblemen, many of whom were Genoese or Venetian, such as Marco
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Sanudo on Naxos. The noblemen had free rein to create their own
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fiefdoms. The Venetians fortified their main towns — Naxos Town and
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Antiparos Town are wonderful examples of this — creating labyrinths of
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narrow alleys and cul-de-sacs that were designed to confuse and to
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demoralize invaders. The Genoese took control of the eastern Aegean
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Islands, which were considered the most valuable for agriculture and
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trade.
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After a final bloody defeat by the Muslims in 1309,
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Christian forces were forced from the Holy Land. The Knights of St.
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John, a holy military force, made their way to Rhodes and Kos in the
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Dodecanese. They began the process of building their strong citadels,
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and reinforcing the Christian faith on the islands. However, they had
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not seen the last of their Muslim foe. A force was gaining strength in
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the east to threaten their new bases.
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The Coming of the Ottoman Turks
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The Ottomans were roving invaders who came from the east,
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taking land in what is now Turkey. By the end of the 13th century, they
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began their first raids on the Aegean Islands. In 1453, they took
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Constantinople, and immediately made it their capital, renaming it
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Istanbul.
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They then set their sights on the islands of the Knights of
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St. John and, after an unsuccessful siege in 1480, they finally ejected
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the knights from the Dodecanese in 1522. In 1566, they wrested Chios
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from the Genoese, bolstering their hold on the eastern Aegean Islands,
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but the Cyclades remained in Venetian hands for another generation or
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more — Tinos was the last to fall in 1715. The Ottomans brought new
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influences to the islands that they controlled, forming a large empire
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that stretched around the eastern Mediterranean.
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Toward Greek Independence
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However, a movement was growing on the Greek peninsula
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against Ottoman rule and for an independent Greek state. In 1770,
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Russia came to aid the Greeks (defined by their Orthodox religion
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rather than by historical geographical boundaries), declaring war on
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the Ottoman Empire and occupying several Aegean islands until 1774.
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Graffiti written by Russian soldiers can be seen in the caves of
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Antiparos.
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Although this attempt was unsuccessful, the campaign for a
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Greek state continued into the 19th century and began to grow in
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strength. The Aegean Islands played their part. Lesvos, Chios, and
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Samos lay in the important shipping lanes, and patriots began
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disrupting Ottoman cargo traffic. In return, the Turks violently put
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down every insurrection, including the massacre on Chios, when 22,000
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people were slaughtered.
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The Ottoman Empire was weakening, however, and in 1821, the
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peoples of the Greek mainland achieved nationhood for the first time.
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The Cyclades and the Sporades island chains were also included in this
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new state. A new sense of identity enveloped Greek peoples throughout
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the Aegean, thus commencing a movement to expand Greece and unify the
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disparate Orthodox populations.
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The Twentieth Century
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A series of disastrous decisions at the beginning of the
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20th century began to sound a death knell for the Ottoman Empire. The
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Turks lost a short war with Italy, and were forced to relinquish the
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Dodecanese islands to the Italians. Greece took this opportunity to
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absorb the islands of the northern and eastern Aegean and to add
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Macedonia to its mainland territories.
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Following this debacle, the Ottomans then allied themselves
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to Germany in the World War I, losing more territory with the defeat of
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the Germans in that war. Greece was handed a strip of land along the
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western coast of Asia Minor, which for over 2,000 years had had a
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substantial Greek population. Greece moved in to administer the land,
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but a new influence upset any grand dreams of making this region a part
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of greater Greece.
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In 1923, Turkey broke away from the tired Ottoman rulers,
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and Kemal Ataturk rose to power on a wave of popular support. He
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promised a modern state for his people, but as the situation became
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volatile, civil strife broke out in Turkish cities, and those
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considered Greek were victims of threats and violence. Many had to
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leave their birthplaces, fleeing to Lesvos, Chios, and Samos, the
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Greek-ruled islands just offshore. Thousands of people arrived with
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little more than the clothes they wore, putting great strain on the
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resources of the islands. Finally, Greece was ousted from its new
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territory in Asia Minor, which became part of the new Turkish
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state.
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Greece attempted to stay out of World War II, but Mussolini
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saw Greece as an ideal addition to his Italian empire. His forces made
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a series of attacks from their bases in the Dodecanese islands,
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including sinking a Greek naval vessel in the harbor of Tinos Town, but
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they only succeeded in strengthening the resolve of the population
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against them. Later the Germans came in force and occupied many of the
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islands.
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After the war, in 1949, the Dodecanese islands finally
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became part of the Greek nation. But the country was politically
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fragmented, with arguments between monarchists and republicans, right
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and left, and tension escalated into civil war. The struggle bypassed
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most of the islands, although there was fierce fighting on Samos. Even
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after the fighting stopped more than a decade later, the country was
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not stable.
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At the same time, the massive growth in air and road
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transport saw shipping decline in importance. The Aegean Islands, which
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for centuries had been important ports on the trading routes, became
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the backwaters of this new transport network and the economies of
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several islands came close to collapse.
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In 1967, the military took the reins of power in Athens,
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and until 1974, the “Colonels” held sway with a repressive and brutal
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regime. Many Greek islanders chose to leave rather than live in poverty
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and terror, and many made new homes in the United States and Australia.
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The expansion of air travel began the age of mass tourism, and Greece
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along with the Aegean Islands became exciting destinations for northern
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Europeans escaping their damp, cool summers.
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In 1982, Greece joined the European Common Market (now the
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European Union). Since this time, membership has been of great monetary
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benefit to the country. The EU has given large subsidies to develop
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Greece’s infrastructure and grants to excavate and protect its ancient
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monuments.
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Airfields have been constructed on a number of the islands,
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and road systems have been expanded and im proved. Private investment
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has even made an increasingly modern ferry fleet possible.
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Politically, the 1990s have been relatively quite times for
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the islands, although the divorce of Greek prime minister Andreas
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Papandreou and his subsequent marriage to a much younger woman caused
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consternation within conservative Greek society.
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As the Balkans flared to war once again, Greek nationalism
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has stirred, and there have been discussions in the kafeneion about the
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land of Macedonia returning to the fold of its forefathers. Whether
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this will ever happen remains to be seen, but perhaps the aid offered
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by Greece to Turkey after 1999’s devastating earthquake is a sign that
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the animosity between these two traditional enemies is beginning to
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diminish.
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