diff --git a/activitypub.py b/activitypub.py
index 460f33b..744a6db 100644
--- a/activitypub.py
+++ b/activitypub.py
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
     def handle(self):
         """Returns this user's ActivityPub address, eg ``@user@foo.com``."""
         if self.obj and self.obj.as1:
-            addr = as2.address(self.as2())
+            addr = as2.address(self.convert(self.obj))
             if addr:
                 return addr
 
@@ -179,7 +179,7 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
 
             logger.info(f'{obj.key} type {obj.type} is not an actor and has no author or actor with inbox')
 
-        actor = obj.as_as2()
+        actor = ActivityPub.convert(obj)
 
         if shared:
             shared_inbox = actor.get('endpoints', {}).get('sharedInbox')
@@ -199,9 +199,7 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
             logger.info(f'Skipping sending to blocklisted {url}')
             return False
 
-        orig_as2 = orig_obj.as_as2() if orig_obj else None
-        activity = obj.as2 or postprocess_as2(obj.as_as2(), orig_obj=orig_as2)
-
+        activity = to_cls.convert(obj, orig_obj=to_cls.convert(orig_obj))
         if not activity.get('actor'):
             logger.warning('Outgoing AP activity has no actor!')
 
@@ -318,7 +316,7 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
         return False
 
     @classmethod
-    def convert(cls, obj):
+    def convert(cls, obj, **kwargs):
         """Convert a :class:`models.Object` to AS2.
 
         Args:
@@ -326,8 +324,17 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
 
         Returns:
           dict: AS2 JSON
+          kwargs: passed through to :func:`postprocess_as2`
         """
-        return postprocess_as2(as2.from_as1(obj.as1))
+        if not obj:
+            return {}
+
+        if obj.as2:
+            return obj.as2
+        elif obj.source_protocol in ('ap', 'activitypub'):
+            return as2.from_as1(obj.as1)
+
+        return postprocess_as2(as2.from_as1(obj.as1), **kwargs)
 
     @classmethod
     def verify_signature(cls, activity):
@@ -399,7 +406,8 @@ class ActivityPub(User, Protocol):
         elif not key_actor or not key_actor.as1:
             error(f"Couldn't load {keyId} to verify signature", status=401)
 
-        key = key_actor.as_as2().get('publicKey', {}).get('publicKeyPem')
+        # don't ActivityPub.convert since we don't want to postprocess_as2
+        key = as2.from_as1(key_actor.as1).get('publicKey', {}).get('publicKeyPem')
         if not key:
             error(f'No public key for {keyId}', status=401)
 
@@ -524,8 +532,9 @@ def postprocess_as2(activity, orig_obj=None, wrap=True):
     """
     if not activity or isinstance(activity, str):
         return activity
+    elif activity.keys() == {'id'}:
+        return activity['id']
 
-    assert g.user
     type = activity.get('type')
 
     # actor objects
@@ -681,10 +690,12 @@ def postprocess_as2(activity, orig_obj=None, wrap=True):
     if content := obj_or_activity.get('content'):
         obj_or_activity.setdefault('contentMap', {'en': content})
 
-    activity['object'] = postprocess_as2(
-        activity.get('object'),
-        orig_obj=orig_obj,
-        wrap=wrap and type in ('Create', 'Update', 'Delete'))
+    activity['object'] = [
+        postprocess_as2(o, orig_obj=orig_obj,
+                        wrap=wrap and type in ('Create', 'Update', 'Delete'))
+        for o in as1.get_objects(activity)]
+    if len(activity['object']) == 1:
+        activity['object'] = activity['object'][0]
 
     return util.trim_nulls(activity)
 
@@ -712,28 +723,26 @@ def postprocess_as2_actor(actor, wrap=True):
     urls = util.get_list(actor, 'url')
     if not urls and url:
         urls = [url]
-
-    domain = util.domain_from_link(urls[0], minimize=False)
-    if wrap:
+    if urls and wrap:
         urls[0] = redirect_wrap(urls[0])
 
     id = actor.get('id')
     if g.user and (not id or g.user.is_web_url(id)):
         actor['id'] = g.user.ap_actor()
 
-    actor.update({
-        'url': urls if len(urls) > 1 else urls[0],
-        # required by ActivityPub
-        # https://www.w3.org/TR/activitypub/#actor-objects
-        'inbox': g.user.ap_actor('inbox'),
-        'outbox': g.user.ap_actor('outbox'),
-    })
+    actor['url'] = urls[0] if len(urls) == 1 else urls
+    # required by ActivityPub
+    # https://www.w3.org/TR/activitypub/#actor-objects
+    actor.setdefault('inbox', g.user.ap_actor('inbox'))
+    actor.setdefault('outbox', g.user.ap_actor('outbox'))
 
     # TODO: genericize (see line 752 in actor())
     if g.user.LABEL != 'atproto':
         # This has to be the domain for Mastodon interop/Webfinger discovery!
         # See related comment in actor() below.
-        actor['preferredUsername'] = domain
+        assert urls
+        actor['preferredUsername'] = util.domain_from_link(
+            unwrap(urls[0]), minimize=False)
 
     # Override the label for their home page to be "Web site"
     for att in util.get_list(actor, 'attachment'):
@@ -780,7 +789,7 @@ def actor(handle_or_id):
     if not g.user.obj or not g.user.obj.as1:
         g.user.obj = cls.load(g.user.profile_id(), gateway=True)
 
-    actor = g.user.as2() or {
+    actor = ActivityPub.convert(g.user.obj) or {
         '@context': [as2.CONTEXT],
         'type': 'Person',
     }
@@ -893,7 +902,7 @@ def follower_collection(id, collection):
     page = {
         'type': 'CollectionPage',
         'partOf': request.base_url,
-        'items': util.trim_nulls([f.user.as2() for f in followers]),
+        'items': util.trim_nulls([ActivityPub.convert(f.user.obj) for f in followers]),
     }
     if new_before:
         page['next'] = f'{request.base_url}?before={new_before}'
diff --git a/follow.py b/follow.py
index e573c79..1aefe97 100644
--- a/follow.py
+++ b/follow.py
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ class FollowCallback(indieauth.Callback):
             return redirect(g.user.user_page_path('following'))
 
         followee_id = followee.as1.get('id')
-        followee_as2 = followee.as_as2()
+        followee_as2 = ActivityPub.convert(followee)
         inbox = followee_as2.get('inbox')
         if not followee_id or not inbox:
             flash(f"AS2 profile {as2_url} missing id or inbox")
@@ -122,7 +122,7 @@ class FollowCallback(indieauth.Callback):
             '@context': 'https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams',
             'type': 'Follow',
             'id': follow_id,
-            'object': followee_as2,
+            'object': followee_id,
             'actor': g.user.ap_actor(),
             'to': [as2.PUBLIC_AUDIENCE],
         }
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ class UnfollowCallback(indieauth.Callback):
             followee.put()
 
         # TODO(#529): generalize
-        inbox = followee.as2().get('inbox')
+        inbox = ActivityPub.convert(followee.obj).get('inbox')
         if not inbox:
             flash(f"AS2 profile {followee_id} missing inbox")
             return redirect(g.user.user_page_path('following'))
diff --git a/models.py b/models.py
index a508a9b..129d7b0 100644
--- a/models.py
+++ b/models.py
@@ -306,10 +306,6 @@ class User(StringIdModel, metaclass=ProtocolUserMeta):
         for u in users:
             u._obj = keys_to_objs.get(u.obj_key)
 
-    def as2(self):
-        """Returns this user as an AS2 actor."""
-        return self.obj.as_as2() if self.obj else {}
-
     @ndb.ComputedProperty
     def handle(self):
         """This user's unique, human-chosen handle, eg ``@me@snarfed.org``.
@@ -540,6 +536,7 @@ class Object(StringIdModel):
     # choices is populated in app, after all User subclasses are created,
     # so that PROTOCOLS is fully populated
     # TODO: remove? is this redundant with the protocol-specific data fields below?
+    # TODO: otherwise, nail down whether this is ABBREV or LABEL
     source_protocol = ndb.StringProperty(choices=[])
     labels = ndb.StringProperty(repeated=True, choices=LABELS)
 
@@ -805,10 +802,6 @@ class Object(StringIdModel):
             with self.lock:
                 setattr(self, prop, None)
 
-    def as_as2(self):
-        """Returns this object as an AS2 dict."""
-        return self.as2 or as2.from_as1(self.as1) or {}
-
     def as_bsky(self, fetch_blobs=False):
         """Returns this object as a Bluesky record.
 
@@ -938,7 +931,7 @@ class Object(StringIdModel):
         * ``object.inReplyTo``
         * ``tags.[objectType=mention].url``
         """
-        if not self.as1 or not self.source_protocol:
+        if not self.as1:
             return
 
         # extract ids, strip Bridgy Fed subdomain URLs
@@ -946,6 +939,9 @@ class Object(StringIdModel):
         if outer_obj != self.as1:
             self.our_as1 = util.trim_nulls(outer_obj)
 
+        if not self.source_protocol:
+            return
+
         inner_obj = outer_obj['object'] = as1.get_object(outer_obj)
         fields = ['actor', 'author', 'inReplyTo']
         mention_tags = [t for t in (as1.get_objects(outer_obj, 'tags')
diff --git a/pages.py b/pages.py
index 0e18c68..f7f948b 100644
--- a/pages.py
+++ b/pages.py
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ from oauth_dropins.webutil.flask_util import (
     redirect,
 )
 
+from activitypub import ActivityPub
 import common
 from common import DOMAIN_RE
 from flask_app import app, cache
@@ -165,6 +166,7 @@ def followers_or_following(protocol, id, collection):
         f'{collection}.html',
         address=request.args.get('address'),
         follow_url=request.values.get('url'),
+        ActivityPub=ActivityPub,
         **TEMPLATE_VARS,
         **locals(),
     )
diff --git a/templates/_followers.html b/templates/_followers.html
index c9d0137..fae47e2 100644
--- a/templates/_followers.html
+++ b/templates/_followers.html
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
         {% endif %}
       {% endwith %}
       {{ user_as1.get('displayName') or '' }}
-      {{ as2.address(f.user.as2() or url) or url }}
+      {{ as2.address(ActivityPub.convert(f.user.obj) or url) or url }}
     </a>
   {% endwith %}
 
diff --git a/tests/test_activitypub.py b/tests/test_activitypub.py
index 382bc27..9f976f0 100644
--- a/tests/test_activitypub.py
+++ b/tests/test_activitypub.py
@@ -1974,10 +1974,31 @@ class ActivityPubUtilsTest(TestCase):
         self.assertFalse(ActivityPub.fetch(obj))
         self.assertIsNone(obj.as1)
 
-    @skip
     def test_convert(self):
-        obj = Object(id='http://orig', as2=LIKE)
-        self.assertEqual(LIKE_WRAPPED, ActivityPub.convert(obj))
+        obj = Object()
+        self.assertEqual({}, ActivityPub.convert(obj))
+
+        obj.our_as1 = {}
+        self.assertEqual({}, ActivityPub.convert(obj))
+
+        obj = Object(id='http://orig', our_as1={
+            'id': 'http://user.com/like',
+            'objectType': 'activity',
+            'verb': 'like',
+            'actor': 'https://user.com/',
+            'object': 'https://mas.to/post',
+        })
+        self.assertEqual({
+            '@context': 'https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams',
+            'id': 'http://localhost/r/http://user.com/like',
+            'type': 'Like',
+            'actor': 'http://localhost/user.com',
+            'object': 'https://mas.to/post',
+            'to': ['https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams#Public'],
+        }, ActivityPub.convert(obj))
+
+        obj.as2 = {'baz': 'biff'}
+        self.assertEqual({'baz': 'biff'}, ActivityPub.convert(obj))
 
     def test_postprocess_as2_idempotent(self):
         g.user = self.make_user('foo.com')
diff --git a/tests/test_follow.py b/tests/test_follow.py
index 88287ff..2e8b9d6 100644
--- a/tests/test_follow.py
+++ b/tests/test_follow.py
@@ -35,13 +35,14 @@ FOLLOWEE = {
     'id': 'https://bar/id',
     'url': 'https://bar/url',
     'inbox': 'http://bar/inbox',
+    'outbox': 'http://bar/outbox',
 }
 FOLLOW_ADDRESS = {
     '@context': 'https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams',
     'type': 'Follow',
     'id': f'http://localhost/web/alice.com/following#2022-01-02T03:04:05-@foo@bar',
     'actor': 'http://localhost/alice.com',
-    'object': FOLLOWEE,
+    'object': FOLLOWEE['id'],
     'to': [as2.PUBLIC_AUDIENCE],
 }
 FOLLOW_URL = copy.deepcopy(FOLLOW_ADDRESS)
@@ -188,10 +189,7 @@ class FollowTest(TestCase):
         self.check('https://bar/actor', resp, FOLLOW_URL, mock_get, mock_post)
 
     def test_callback_stored_followee_with_our_as1(self, mock_get, mock_post):
-        self.store_object(id='https://bar/id', our_as1=as2.to_as1({
-            **FOLLOWEE,
-            # 'id': 'https://bar/actor',
-        }))
+        self.store_object(id='https://bar/id', our_as1=as2.to_as1(FOLLOWEE))
 
         mock_get.side_effect = (
             requests_response(''),
@@ -208,14 +206,7 @@ class FollowTest(TestCase):
         follow_with_profile_link = {
             **FOLLOW_URL,
             'id': f'http://localhost/web/alice.com/following#2022-01-02T03:04:05-https://bar/id',
-            'object': {
-                **FOLLOWEE,
-                'attachment': [{
-                    'type': 'PropertyValue',
-                    'name': 'Link',
-                    'value': '<a rel="me" href="https://bar/url"><span class="invisible">https://</span>bar/url</a>',
-                }],
-            },
+            'object': 'https://bar/id',
         }
         self.check('https://bar/id', resp, follow_with_profile_link, mock_get,
                    mock_post, fetched_followee=False)
@@ -246,9 +237,7 @@ class FollowTest(TestCase):
         state = util.encode_oauth_state(self.state)
         resp = self.client.get(f'/follow/callback?code=my_code&state={state}')
 
-        expected_follow = copy.deepcopy(FOLLOW_URL)
-        expected_follow['object'] = followee
-        self.check('https://bar/actor', resp, expected_follow, mock_get, mock_post)
+        self.check('https://bar/actor', resp, FOLLOW_URL, mock_get, mock_post)
 
     def check(self, input, resp, expected_follow, mock_get, mock_post,
               fetched_followee=True):
@@ -321,18 +310,14 @@ class FollowTest(TestCase):
 
         id = 'http://localhost/web/www.alice.com/following#2022-01-02T03:04:05-https://bar/actor'
         expected_follow = {
-            '@context': 'https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams',
-            'type': 'Follow',
+            **FOLLOW_URL,
             'id': id,
             'actor': 'http://localhost/www.alice.com',
-            'object': FOLLOWEE,
-            'to': [as2.PUBLIC_AUDIENCE],
         }
         followee = ActivityPub(id='https://bar/id').key
         follow_obj = self.assert_object(
             id, users=[user.key, followee], status='complete',
-            labels=['user', 'activity'], source_protocol='ui', as2=expected_follow,
-            as1=as2.to_as1(expected_follow))
+            labels=['user', 'activity'], source_protocol='ui', as2=expected_follow)
 
         followers = Follower.query().fetch()
         self.assert_entities_equal(
@@ -363,11 +348,7 @@ class FollowTest(TestCase):
         state = util.encode_oauth_state(self.state)
         resp = self.client.get(f'/follow/callback?code=my_code&state={state}')
 
-        expected_follow = {
-            **FOLLOW_URL,
-            'object': followee,
-        }
-        self.check('https://bar/actor', resp, expected_follow, mock_get, mock_post)
+        self.check('https://bar/actor', resp, FOLLOW_URL, mock_get, mock_post)
         self.assertEqual(
             [f'Followed <a href="https://bar/url">https://bar/actor</a>.'],
             get_flashed_messages())
diff --git a/tests/test_models.py b/tests/test_models.py
index 6d04e16..182ed0a 100644
--- a/tests/test_models.py
+++ b/tests/test_models.py
@@ -160,18 +160,6 @@ class UserTest(TestCase):
     def test_handle(self):
         self.assertEqual('y.z', g.user.handle)
 
-    def test_as2(self):
-        self.assertEqual({}, g.user.as2())
-
-        obj = Object(id='foo')
-        g.user.obj_key = obj.key  # doesn't exist
-        self.assertEqual({}, g.user.as2())
-
-        del g.user._obj
-        obj.as2 = {'foo': 'bar'}
-        obj.put()
-        self.assertEqual({'foo': 'bar'}, g.user.as2())
-
     def test_id_as(self):
         user = self.make_user('fake:user', cls=Fake)
         self.assertEqual('fake:user', user.id_as(Fake))
@@ -532,26 +520,6 @@ class ObjectTest(TestCase):
         obj.put()
         self.assertEqual(['user'], obj.labels)
 
-    def test_as_as2(self):
-        obj = Object()
-        self.assertEqual({}, obj.as_as2())
-
-        obj.our_as1 = {}
-        self.assertEqual({}, obj.as_as2())
-
-        obj.our_as1 = {
-            'objectType': 'person',
-            'foo': 'bar',
-        }
-        self.assertEqual({
-            '@context': 'https://www.w3.org/ns/activitystreams',
-            'type': 'Person',
-            'foo': 'bar',
-        }, obj.as_as2())
-
-        obj.as2 = {'baz': 'biff'}
-        self.assertEqual({'baz': 'biff'}, obj.as_as2())
-
     def test_as1_from_as2(self):
         self.assert_equals({
             'objectType': 'person',
diff --git a/tests/test_protocol.py b/tests/test_protocol.py
index 43b3631..f90eb28 100644
--- a/tests/test_protocol.py
+++ b/tests/test_protocol.py
@@ -1432,7 +1432,7 @@ class ProtocolReceiveTest(TestCase):
         Fake.receive(obj)
         self.assert_equals({
             **follow,
-            'actor': 'fake:alice',
+            'actor': {'id': 'fake:alice'},
             'object': 'other:bob',
         }, Object.get_by_id('fake:follow').our_as1)
 
diff --git a/tests/test_web.py b/tests/test_web.py
index 10a977b..b5e5e60 100644
--- a/tests/test_web.py
+++ b/tests/test_web.py
@@ -62,17 +62,6 @@ ACTOR_AS2 = {
     'inbox': 'http://localhost/user.com/inbox',
     'outbox': 'http://localhost/user.com/outbox',
 }
-ACTOR_AS2_USER = {
-    'type': 'Person',
-    'id': 'https://user.com/',
-    'url': 'https://user.com/',
-    'name': 'Ms. ☕ Baz',
-    'attachment': [{
-        'name': 'Ms. ☕ Baz',
-        'type': 'PropertyValue',
-        'value': '<a rel="me" href="https://user.com"><span class="invisible">https://</span>user.com</a>',
-    }],
-}
 ACTOR_AS2_FULL = {
     **ACTOR_AS2,
     '@context': [
@@ -931,8 +920,8 @@ class WebTest(TestCase):
         self.assertEqual(('https://mas.to/inbox',), args)
         self.assert_equals(AS2_CREATE, json_loads(kwargs['data']))
 
-    def test_like_stored_object_without_as2(self, mock_get, mock_post):
-        Object(id='https://mas.to/toot', mf2=NOTE_MF2, source_protocol='ap').put()
+    def test_like_stored_object(self, mock_get, mock_post):
+        Object(id='https://mas.to/toot', source_protocol='ap').put()
         Object(id='https://user.com/', mf2=ACTOR_MF2).put()
         mock_get.side_effect = [
             LIKE,
@@ -1608,15 +1597,20 @@ class WebTest(TestCase):
                                expected_as2)
 
         # updated Web user
-        self.assert_user(Web, 'user.com',
-                         obj_as2={
-                             **ACTOR_AS2_USER,
-                             'updated': '2022-01-02T03:04:05+00:00',
-                         },
-                         direct=True,
-                         has_redirects=True,
-                         )
-
+        expected_actor_as2 = {
+            'type': 'Person',
+            'id': 'https://user.com/',
+            'url': 'https://user.com/',
+            'name': 'Ms. ☕ Baz',
+            'attachment': [{
+                'name': 'Ms. ☕ Baz',
+                'type': 'PropertyValue',
+                'value': '<a rel="me" href="https://user.com"><span class="invisible">https://</span>user.com</a>',
+            }],
+            'updated': '2022-01-02T03:04:05+00:00',
+        }
+        self.assert_user(Web, 'user.com', obj_as2=expected_actor_as2, direct=True,
+                         has_redirects=True)
 
         # homepage object
         actor = {
@@ -1841,7 +1835,7 @@ http://this/404s
         # preferredUsername stays y.z despite user's username. since Mastodon
         # queries Webfinger for preferredUsername@fed.brid.gy
         # https://github.com/snarfed/bridgy-fed/issues/77#issuecomment-949955109
-        postprocessed = postprocess_as2(g.user.as2())
+        postprocessed = ActivityPub.convert(g.user.obj)
         self.assertEqual('user.com', postprocessed['preferredUsername'])
 
     def test_web_url(self, _, __):
diff --git a/tests/testutil.py b/tests/testutil.py
index a432be4..ea38ff3 100644
--- a/tests/testutil.py
+++ b/tests/testutil.py
@@ -456,7 +456,7 @@ class TestCase(unittest.TestCase, testutil.Asserts):
 
         obj_as2 = props.pop('obj_as2', None)
         if obj_as2:
-            self.assert_equals(obj_as2, got.as2())
+            self.assert_equals(obj_as2, as2.from_as1(got.obj.as1))
 
         # generated, computed, etc
         ignore = ['created', 'mod', 'handle', 'obj_key', 'private_exponent',